Issues in Language Teaching

Abstract Although prior research has discursively examined the inclusion of intercultural pragmatic content in EFL contexts, there has been little focus on how teachers perceive and implement intercultural pragmatic competence within the classroom. To fill this gap, we tried to develop a theoretically informed instrument to assess intercultural pragmatic competence and administer it to a representative sample of 376 EFL teachers. Using Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), we investigated the factor structure underlying the scale. The results indicate six distinct factors: sociocultural awareness, empathetic engagement, adaptive communication, inference, pragmatic motivation, and strategic competence. The Cronbach's alpha values demonstrated that each factor reflected conceptual coherence and internal consistency. The findings revealed that intercultural pragmatic ability comprises several dimensions, and correspondingly highlight the significance of these characteristics within the framework of EFL instruction. The validated instrument can provide researchers, teacher educators, and curriculum designers with a significant resource for assessing and improving intercultural pragmatics in language education.

Abstract The acquisition of prepositions has been notoriously challenging for those who are learning English as a foreign language. Meanwhile, it has been suggested that applying extensive reading can be a beneficial approach since such instructional strategy draws learners’ attention to the target forms through incidental learning. The current study attempted to investigate the comparative effects of different extensive reading enhancement modalities on the incidental acquisition of simple prepositions. Sixty-six Iranian adolescent EFL students divided into three groups of digitally-enhanced extensive reading, print-enhanced extensive reading, and control were recruited. Over a 9-week period, the experimental groups participated in an engineered extensive reading program during the last thirty minutes of their classes (two sessions per week). They completed two graded readers from the Oxford Bookworms series and during each session, orally summarized four pages to encourage meaningful use of the target prepositions, thereby consolidating their contextualized exposure during reading. The control group received no such intervention. An immediate and a delayed post-test were administered following the intervention, revealing that the print-enhanced group outperformed the control group on both the immediate and delayed post-tests. However, the differences between the digitally-enhanced group and the other two groups did not turn out significant. The experiment showed that the physical medium of extensive reading can be a considerable variable for the incidental acquisition of prepositions as low-salience grammatical features, with findings indicating the superiority of print materials enhanced by strategic typography.

Abstract The timing and distribution of instructional input play a critical role in shaping language learning outcomes. This study examined the effects of input spacing on second language (L2) grammar learning by comparing massed and distributed presentation formats. Twenty Persian-speaking pre-intermediate learners at a private language institute in Mashhad, Iran, participated in the study. The participants were taught four unfamiliar grammatical rules across two instructional sessions. Each learner encountered two rules under a massed input condition (2-day interval) and two rules under a distributed input condition (9-day interval), allowing for a within-subjects comparison. A delayed posttest was administered four weeks after the final instructional session to assess long-term retention. The results revealed a significant advantage for the distributed input condition (9-day interval) over the massed condition (2-day interval), suggesting that increasing the lag between instructional encounters can enhance long-term retention of L2 grammatical knowledge. These findings support the spacing effect in L2 acquisition and offer pedagogical insights into how input scheduling can influence the retention of grammatical knowledge in foreign language instruction. The study contributes to the growing body of research advocating for the strategic timing of instructional input to maximize long-term learning outcomes in L2 education.

Abstract This study investigates silence as a discursive strategy in educational English conversations from a pragmatic, Conversation Analysis (CA) perspective. Drawing on 15 hours of naturally occurring classroom interaction from fourth-year undergraduate EFL seminars at the University of Al-Qadisiyah (27 students, ages 21-22), we examine how silence is positioned and oriented to within three key sequential environments: post-question gaps, pre-dispreferred responses, and repair spaces. Video-audio recordings were transcribed using ten Have’s (2007) conventions with fine-grained timing and multimodal notes (e.g., gaze, gesture). Analyses show that post-question gaps, when coupled with withheld evaluation or minimal continuers, are treated as invitations to elaborate, redistributing epistemic work to learners. Brief delays before disagreement operate as face-management buffers, licensing hedging and reason-giving that render stance shifts pedagogically productive. Silences surrounding trouble in hearing/understanding function as repair slots and search spaces, supporting concise teacher repeats and learner recognition/uptake that secure intersubjectivity with minimal disruption. Across environments, the pragmatic import of silence is evidenced through next-turn proof in participants’ subsequent actions. We argue that silence in these classrooms is not absence but a recipient-designed resource that coordinates knowledge, face, and progressivity. Implications include micro-pedagogical practices and CA-informed materials that normalize repair and elaboration.

Abstract Drawing on affective and sociocultural perspectives, this study investigates university language instructors’ psychological stress, emotional safety, and coping strategies in sustained online teaching. Psychological stress is conceptualized as instructors’ perceived emotional and cognitive strain, emotional safety as their sense of emotional security and professional autonomy in virtual classrooms, and coping mechanisms as the strategies used to regulate stress and maintain instructional effectiveness. Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), the study explores how instructors make sense of these affective experiences within their institutional and cultural contexts. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 university language instructors (7 from Iran and 6 from Germany) who had at least five years of experience in both online and face-to-face teaching. Interview data were systematically analyzed using MAXQDA 2022, resulting in 724 coded segments organized into six interrelated themes: (1) psychological stress and workload, (2) emotional safety, (3) virtual classroom conditions, (4) emotional reactions to online teaching, (5) comparisons with face-to-face instruction, and (6) coping strategies. The findings indicate that sustained online teaching intensified instructors’ stress due to reduced affective feedback, technical instability, and increased emotional labor, while simultaneously enabling new forms of psychological safety, particularly for more anxious or less participatory learners. To manage these pressures, instructors reported using adaptive pedagogical practices, emotional self-regulation, and peer support, with patterns varying across the two national contexts. Overall, the study highlights the complex emotional ecology of normalized online language teaching and underscores the need for culturally sensitive, emotionally responsive, and institutionally supported approaches to sustainable digital language education.

Abstract The present study attempted to investigate the challenges English student teachers encountered compared to non-English student teachers at Farhangian University in online-learning environment. The data from focus groups, reflections, and interviews were analyzed using content analysis. The challenges were classified under two main themes: (1) the primary phase challenges pertaining to attaining online learning conditions, and (2) secondary phase challenges which included the adaptation and adjustments that had to be made to have a more effective online learning experience. Group comparisons revealed different learning pathways for the English and non-English student teachers, leading to educational inequities. It was also shown that the non-English student teachers suffered from gender inequity. Furthermore, the findings also revealed that the English student teachers and non-English student teachers as two social groups faced separate challenges resulting from different sources. It can be concluded that the two social groups go through two distinct pathways. Possible ways to safeguard social justice in terms of gender and social group equity in online teacher education based on the concept of “digital divide” are put forward.

Abstract Research on systematic assessment of the extent to which the objectives of the EFL teacher education curricula implemented at universities are achieved in Iran, especially from the perspective of the educators, are qualitative and small-scale. The main objective of this paper was to develop and validate a local instrument based on the existing theoretical underpinnings to measure the educators’ views on the quality of the implementation of the curriculum. The theoretical basis was based on three valid models of curriculum development and evaluation. Accordingly, three main constructs –achievement of educational objectives, implementation conditions and opportunities, and student teachers’ readiness to play the role of teachers – were developed. The initial questionnaire was designed with 33 items in the form of a five-point Likert scale and then reduced to 27 items by considering the face and content validity coefficients. 55 faculty and visiting professors of the English departments of Farhangian University from all over the country participated in data collection. The results of the second-order confirmatory factor analysis, which was conducted using the partial least squares (PLS) method, showed that the conceptual structure of the instrument has a desirable construct validity and the composite reliability indices, AVE, and factor loadings are at an acceptable level. This instrument can be used to evaluate EFL teacher education programs at higher education centers, and its results can help educational policymakers, curriculum designers, and university administrators in reviewing and improving the quality of EFL teacher education programs.

Abstract Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to transform education by making learning more personalized, interactive, and effective. In the current study, we aimed to propose an AI-oriented English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teacher education model based on the Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate (ADDIE) instructional design model. We employed descriptive narrative design and the ADDIE model to propose this framework. While trying to construct the qualitative model, we found that to propose an AI-oriented EFL teacher education based on ADDIE the following themes should be taken into account: (a) identifying the professional, psychological, and technological needs of teachers; (b) equipping EFL teachers with AI literacy and pedagogical strategies for teaching in the AI era; (c) addressing professional and financial opportunities and challenges in AI-oriented teacher education for effective implementation; (d) addressing educational and social opportunities and challenges in AI-oriented teacher education for effective implementation; (e) implementing AI-oriented teacher education with AI support for effective training; and (f) evaluating the impact of AI-oriented EFL teacher education on teaching practices. We conclude that a systematic AI-oriented EFL teacher education program needs to address both a priori and a posteriori tasks to be effective, encompassing the phases of ADDIE.

Abstract Reflective teaching is one of the most important teacher-related variables in EFL teaching contexts. However, intervention-based studies examining the influence of teacher-education courses on self-reported reflective teaching are almost non-existent. Accordingly, this study explored the effects of two teacher education courses; one encompassing the four stages of philosophy, principles, theory, and practice, and another constituting critical reflection on EFL teachers’ reflective teaching. The participants comprised 98 EFL teachers who were selected based on convenience sampling procedure and divided into two experimental groups and a control one. The three groups were given a reflective teaching questionnaire (RTQ) as pretest. The first experimental group received intervention in line with the four stages of reflection and the second group was exposed to critical reflection, while the control group did not receive any specific treatment in relation to reflective teaching. However, the control group partook in eight teachers’ meetings in which the general principles of teaching language skills and components were reviewed. After the intervention, the three groups took the RTQ as posttest. The results of One-way ANCOVA indicated that both intervention types significantly impacted EFL teachers' reflective teaching with the critical reflection being significantly more effective than the intervention based on the four stages. Based on the findings, teacher education programs designed to enhance reflective practices among teachers need to emphasize and systematically integrate the critical reflection initiatives into their core framework.

Abstract Although digital learning (DL) and self-regulated learning (SRL) have been widely examined independently, their interrelationship, moderating influences, and combined effects on L2 learning remain underexplored. This meta-synthesis addressed this lacuna by analyzing 56 high-quality empirical studies (N = 12,753) identified through a systematic search of JCR- and Scopus-indexed journals. Using thematic analysis in NVivo 12 and Sandelowski and Barroso’s synthesis framework, the findings were synthesized into five overarching themes. First, DL environments frequently enhanced SRL by supporting autonomy, monitoring, attention, and learner responsibility. Second, SRL–DL interactions were shaped by learner-related factors (motivation, self-efficacy, digital literacy, attitudes) and educational conditions (scaffolding, interaction, engagement, and facilitating conditions). Third, technology-supported SRL commonly involved goal-setting, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and time/resource management, whereas social strategies were least used. Fourth, technology-based self-regulated learning (TBSRL) consistently improved language learning outcomes, particularly in vocabulary and writing, with several interventions showing sustained achievement gains. Finally, DL offered benefits such as increased motivation, personalization, and reduced anxiety, while concerns included overreliance on AI, academic integrity, and the need for human mediation. This synthesis provides important implications for theory and practice by proposing an integrated model of TBSRL in which digital affordances influence L2 outcomes through SRL processes moderated by learner and educational factors. The findings further highlight that effective AI- and technology-mediated language learning depends on access to digital tools, sustained pedagogical scaffolding, and support for collaborative regulation.

Abstract Vocabulary knowledge is a central component of language competence, yet the aural dimension of vocabulary and its psychological correlates remain underexplored in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts. Addressing this gap, this study examined whether Iranian EFL learners’ second language (L2) motivation, foreign language enjoyment (FLE), and self-regulatory capacity in vocabulary learning predict their aural vocabulary knowledge (AVK). A total of 122 undergraduate EFL students at Hakim Sabzevary University completed four instruments: the Motivation Questionnaire (Taguchi et al., 2009), the Foreign Language Enjoyment Scale (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014), the Self-Regulation Scale (Tseng et al., 2006), and the AVK Test (Taguchi & Kaya, 2019). Multiple regression and path analyses were conducted using SPSS. The results showed that enjoyment and self-regulation were significantly correlated with AVK, whereas L2 motivation was not. In the regression model, only self-regulation significantly predicted AVK, highlighting the pivotal role of learners’ self-regulatory capacity in aural vocabulary development. Path analysis further revealed a significant indirect effect of enjoyment on AVK through self-regulation, indicating that enjoyment facilitates AVK primarily by enhancing learners’ self-regulatory behaviours. These findings underscore the importance of fostering both enjoyment and self-regulation in pedagogical interventions aimed at improving EFL learners’ AVK and, by extension, their listening proficiency.

Abstract Regardless of the current buzz, there is still a great deal to uncover when it comes to the promises of AI in language instruction, especially in under-resourced contexts. The present mixed-methods study compared the effects of AI-powered chatbots and Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication (SCMC) on Iranian EFL learners’ oral proficiency and self-efficacy. For this purpose, 60 EFL learners were conveniently sampled and the speaking section of IELTS as well as the Questionnaire of English Self-Efficacy were administered as pretest and posttest with six weeks of treatment. The experimental group used Pi as speaking partner, whereas the other group spent a comparable amount of time engaging in SCMC with the instructor. ANCOVA revealed that AI significantly enhanced oral self-efficacy in the experimental group (p = 0.001). As for oral proficiency, although a positive impact was suggested, the difference was only marginally significant (p = 0.082). Qualitative findings mostly suggested positive attitudes, particularly towards the “increased practice opportunities” while a number of concerns, especially about “limitations in natural interaction” were voiced. It is argued that AI has the potential to compensate for some of the limitations in under-resourced TESOL contexts and push language education to more equitable and sustainable standards around the globe.

Abstract This study investigated diachronic changes of linguistic markers of stance in language testing journals. To this end, 2100 research articles published from 1985 to 2025 in four top-tier journals were scrutinized. To explore diachronic changes, the time frame was divided into four periods (1985-1995; 1996-2005; 2006-2015; 2016-2025). For each decade, 525 articles were randomly selected from the pool of eligible publications meeting the study’s inclusion criteria. Hyland (2005a) was used to identify stance markers. Wordsmith Tools (version 6) assisted the researchers in analyzing the markers. All concordance-line matches were subsequently checked manually to confirm that each lexical item functioned as a stance marker in its specific context before being counted. It was found that hedges were used more often than in other categories of stance markers, suggesting that academic writers tend to present their findings with caution. Moreover, because of the objective nature of academic discourse (especially in the past), attitude markers were used less than other categories. The analysis demonstrated that stance-marker use increased overall, with hedges declining in relative dominance while self-mentions increased disproportionately over time. This study has implications for researchers seeking to become familiar with common stance markers used by professional EFL authors and teachers, for learners to be acquainted with the stance markers identified in this study, and for materials developers to design instructional materials on the standard writing of research articles.

Abstract Abstract in every research paper has always been functioning as an attention-grabber which can encourage readers to keep reading the research or to dissuade it. Although abstracts are believed to play an important role in distributing the research findings, few studies have been done to evaluate the rhetorical organization of thesis abstracts, especially in the field of Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL). Thus, the purpose of the present study was to analyze the rhetorical moves of the MA thesis abstracts written from 1988 to 2015 in the field of TEFL in Allameh Tabataba’i University (ATU), an Iranian university. To this end, 300 MA thesis abstracts were analyzed based on Hyland’s (2000) rhetorical move framework. To track the rhetorical move trends of the thesis abstracts and for the ease of analysis, they were analyzed in three time intervals. The results revealed that while in the first interval (1988-1997) the most frequent rhetorical moves were the “Purpose”, “Method”, and “Product”, in the other two intervals (1998-2007 and 2008-2015) the “Purpose” was the most used rhetorical move. In addition, the least frequent rhetorical moves were the “Introduction” and “Conclusion” for the three intervals. The findings, on top of these, indicated that the rhetorical move patterns of thesis abstracts moved from Purpose-Method-Product (P-M-Pr) to Introduction-Purpose-Method-Product-Conclusion (I-P-M-Pr-C). That said, it can be concluded that in the examined thesis abstracts, the highest average of information was provided on the “Purpose” of the study, while the other moves, especially the conclusion move, was not deemed important; moreover, an increasing rate of information provision was detected on the “Method” and “Product” moves. This research bears some implications for L2 learners to better know their community of practice and writing instructors to prepare genre-based writing materials. 

Abstract This study aimed to investigate the use of interactional metadiscourse markers in 168 comments made by 28 university students of engineering via an educational forum held as part of a general English course. The students wrote their comments on six topics, with a total of 19,671 words. Their comments during educational discussions were analyzed to determine their use of five metadiscourse categories (hedges, boosters, attitude markers, engagement markers, and self-mentions), making up interactional metadiscourse in Hyland’s (2004) model. Following descriptive analysis of the use of metadiscourse categories, chi-square tests were used to investigate the possible differences in the whole sample as well as gender-based differences. The findings showed that although female EFL learners used more metadiscourse markers than males did, the differences were minor and hence gender did not significantly influence the use of interactional metadiscourse markers. However, while male and female participants used all types of interactional metadiscourse, how they used them varied. They used engagement markers and self-mentions more frequently than boosters, hedges, and attitude markers. Since metadiscourse markers play crucial roles in mediating the relationship between what writers intend to argue and their discourse communities, the results of the present study have obvious importance in increasing students’ awareness of the way they organize their writings.

Abstract The present study evaluated the learning objectives represented in the recent Iranian nation-wide ELT textbooks, i.e. Prospect and Vision series, and compared them to those in the internationally-published textbook of Four Corners. To this end, Bloom’s revised taxonomy of learning objectives was utilized as the analytical framework to scrutinize the tasks and exercises of the textbooks using a researcher-made coding scheme based on the taxonomy and investigate the extent to which they represent lower-order thinking skills (LOTS) (i.e. remembering, understanding, and applying) and higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) (i.e. analyzing, evaluating, and creating). Inter-coder reliability procedure was carried out to ensure the consistency of the scheme (Phi-coefficient =.89). Results of chi-square analysis revealed that Four Corners series dealt with LOTS and HOTS significantly more and above Prospect and Vision series. Furthermore, while Prospect and Vision series portrayed a completely imbalanced view towards LOTS and HOTS, Four Corners provided a somehow balanced representation in the tasks and exercises. The findings make the ELT teachers aware of the cognitive levels in the textbooks and recommend them to add supplementary materials when needed. Moreover, the results point to the significance of modifying the cognitive load of the Prospect and Vision series.

Abstract Academic writing ability is an important goal that learners of English as a Second Language (ESL) or English as a Foreign Language (EFL) try to attain. While ESL students’ academic writings have been widely explored, owing to few studies investigating appraisal resources in EFL students’ argumentative writing, the gap still exists about EFL students’ academic writing. This study aimed to see how Kurdish-speaking learners of English employ appraisal resources in their writings. It further aimed to explore whether the appraisal framework can be utilized as an assessment scale for evaluating the students’ argumentative writing. To this end, the study investigated the argumentative essays written by 15 bilingual Kurdish-Iranian graduates of English within the framework of the appraisal theory. The instruments applied in this study consisted of a modified rating scale for assessing the essays in terms of the macrostructures exploited in them and the framework for the analysis of appraisal resources. Quantitative findings revealed high-graded essays employ more attitudinal items and fewer monoglossic resources than low-graded ones. Qualitatively, the high-graded essays articulated attitudinal values in nominal forms and sometimes in a backgrounded manner while these values were mostly presented by surge of feelings and in a foregrounded way in the low-graded essays. Regarding engagement, unlike the high-graded essays, the low-graded ones were poor in recognizing other voices and alternative positions. Inspired by the strength of the appraisal model evaluating writing, results suggest that high-graded essays are successful in positioning readers attitudinally and clarifying the ethical message to readers.

Abstract Given the fact that developing an intimate relationship between teacher and students creates a safe learning environment (Harran, 2006), and because teacher immediacy is proved to increase students’ motivation for learning (Velez & Cano, 2008), this study was an attempt to explore the relationship between Iranian EFL learners’ perceived teacher immediacy and their willingness to communicate (WTC). To this end, first, a new WTC questionnaire, specific to EFL settings, was developed, piloted, factor analyzed, and then administered on 90 intermediate EFL learners. In the second phase, the participants were required to complete Gorham’s (1988) Verbal Immediacy Measure (VIM) and McCroskey et al.’s (1996) Revised Nonverbal Immediacy Measure (RNIM). The findings revealed that there are 7 factors underlying EFL learners’ WTC, one of which is teacher immediacy. Further analyses showed that there is a positive relationship between both verbal and nonverbal teacher immediacy behaviors and EFL learners’ WTC in EFL classes. It can be concluded that teacher immediacy is one of the constituents of EFL learners’ WTC and that their WTC is likely to increase when teachers demonstrate immediacy behaviors while teaching. The present study has implications for language practitioners as well as teacher trainers.

Abstract Language and culture are now deemed to be co-constitutive; hence English language teaching (ELT) textbooks should incorporate cultural aspects and promote intercultural competence. However, careful decisions should be made as regards to the cultural content of materials and the ways in which culture is represented. This study was an attempt to deconstruct the patterns of cultural representation and intercultural interactions in Interchange textbooks, an ELT textbook series taught to English as a foreign language (EFL) learners in Iran. Using content analysis of texts and images and with the focus on nationality, gender and race, it examined how different cultures were reflected in Interchange 1, Interchange 2, Interchange 3, and whether cultural bias or inequality was present. The quantitative and qualitative data analysis revealed that the white male group was dominant in all three textbooks. And, to use Kachru’s (1985) terms, inner, outer and expanding circle nationalities were represented in the textbooks, with the expanding circle constituting the major nationality, but American culture of inner circle was predominant. Additionally, the interactions were mainly limited to superficial aspects of the target culture although these textbooks sought to show various intercultural interactions. Dominance of male and white characters and the US culture indicated inequality in race and gender, and the superficial treatment of culture in the textbooks. Less attention to the hybrid culture and deeper level of intercultural aspects, i.e. critical reflections, in the textbooks suggests that the materials be supplemented by EFL teachers’ constructive discussion of the cultures that interact.  

Abstract The popularity of integrating technology in language instruction and its fundamental effect on the language learning dimensions has been widely acknowledged whereas learners’ motivation and attitude are expected to be improved in a web-based Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) environment. Therefore, this paper aimed to investigate the Iranian EFL learners’ motivation to learn English and attitude in a CALL environment. The participants of this study were 120 intermediate EFL learners from two private English language institutes in Isfahan, Iran. They were divided into two equal groups; one experimental group (EG) and one control group (CG). Then, a motivation questionnaire pretest was administered out to check the participants’ motivation at the beginning of the course. As the treatment, the EG learners were taught through CALL-based instruction and the CG learners were taught traditionally. After the treatment, a posttest of motivation and an attitude questionnaire were administered. The outcomes indicated that the CALL-based instruction promoted the participants’ motivation as checked by the Motivation Questionnaire. Moreover, as measured by a 20-item A-CALL attitude questionnaire, it was discovered that the learners in the EG had positive attitudes toward using CALL-based instruction. In light of the findings, a number of conclusions are obtained and several implications are put forward.