Research Paper
Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
Hamed Abbasi Mojdehi; Abbas Ali Zarei; Rajab Esfandiari
Abstract
Grammatical accuracy has always been a concern for most Iranian EFL learners. This grammatical variability is more visible in the writing of Iranian IELTS candidates. In this study, the impacts of (distributed, peer and reciprocal scaffolding on IELTS learners' horizontal grammatical variability ...
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Grammatical accuracy has always been a concern for most Iranian EFL learners. This grammatical variability is more visible in the writing of Iranian IELTS candidates. In this study, the impacts of (distributed, peer and reciprocal scaffolding on IELTS learners' horizontal grammatical variability were investigated. An explanatory mixed design was employed to measure the differences among scaffolding types and to develop a better understanding of teachers' and learners' perception toward them. 120 IELTS candidates were randomly selected from a pool of 367 candidates, and they were put in three experimental groups and a control group. Each scaffolding type was used in one of the experimental groups as the treatment. Five different essay topics were given to each student before the course and after the course. Two official IELTS mock examiners rated the writing performances according to the details of IELTS criteria about grammar accuracy and variability. Next, using an ANCOVA procedure, the data were analyzed. Moreover, the data collected in the qualitative phase were content analyzed. The findings showed that in distributed and reciprocal scaffolding classes, the differences were significant. The qualitative findings showed that although there was a discrepancy between the teachers' and the learners' attitude toward the possible success of the treatments, at the end, both parties confirmed that they can be beneficial. Due to the fact that 'time' has always been a precious parameter in IELTS preparatory classes, these findings can be of help to IELTS teachers and candidates.
Research Paper
Applied Linguistics
Abbas Bayat; Bahman Amini; Keyvan Mahmoodi
Abstract
In recent decades, many second language acquisition (SLA) researchers have identified the leading role of organizing sequentially cognitive tasks in Task-Based Language Teaching. Presenting types of different task sequence has become increasingly crucial for syllabus designers. This investigation examines ...
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In recent decades, many second language acquisition (SLA) researchers have identified the leading role of organizing sequentially cognitive tasks in Task-Based Language Teaching. Presenting types of different task sequence has become increasingly crucial for syllabus designers. This investigation examines the theoretical basis of task sequencing, which claims that pedagogical tasks should be developed and ordered cognitively from easy to complex. The current study aims to compare the performance of English learners in sequenced and isolated familiar tasks. Sixty EFL learners studying at the intermediate level in two private language institutes participated in this research. They were randomly selected as one experimental and one control group, each comprising 30 subjects. Before starting treatment, all the participants took a listening comprehension test as a pretest. The treatment took place over one semester, during which the subjects performed simple-complex familiar sequenced tasks while the control group received familiar randomized tasks. After treatment, the posttest of listening comprehension, which contained two complex task features, i.e., - Here-and-Now and - Planning time, was employed. The independent-samples t-test showed that the experimental group who received simple-complex sequenced tasks outperformed the control group in listening to complex tasks. The findings supported the employment of simple-complex sequencing tasks to foster listening task complexity performance.
Research Paper
Applied Linguistics
majid Ghorbani; shokouh Rashvand Semiyari
Abstract
The current study undertook to explore the interplay of motivational/attitudinal variables and second language (L2) learners’ motivated behavior through the lens of a revised model of L2 self-guides. This new model reconceptualizes Dornyei’s (2005, 2009) original motivational self-system ...
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The current study undertook to explore the interplay of motivational/attitudinal variables and second language (L2) learners’ motivated behavior through the lens of a revised model of L2 self-guides. This new model reconceptualizes Dornyei’s (2005, 2009) original motivational self-system into a five-factor model consisting of the bifurcated ideal and ought-to L2 selves (i.e., ideal L2 self/own, ideal L2 self/other, ought L2 self/own and ought L2 self/other) and L2 learning experience. In addition, two important antecedents of L2 self-guides (i.e., instrumentality-promotion and instrumentality-prevention) were also included in the new model. Data were collected from 856 students of English as a foreign language (EFL) at six Iranian universities. Fitness of the new model was supported by structural equation modeling (SEM) and all the paths were shown to be significant. Furthermore, SEM results indicated that ideal L2 self/own was the strongest factor predicting motivated behavior (considering its total effects). L2 learning experience and ought-to L2 self/own were the second and third predicting factors in terms of the magnitude of their effects respectively. The study provides a more nuanced understanding of learners’ motivational self system in foreign or second language learning.
Research Paper
Interlanguage Pragmatics (ILP)
Saba . Bashiri; Saman . Ebadi
Abstract
In line with Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (SCT) of mind, digital game-based language learning (DGBL) and dynamic assessment (DA) offer language learning opportunities via sociocultural engagement. This quantitative study explored the role of pragmatic learning strategies (PLSs) and gender in ...
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In line with Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (SCT) of mind, digital game-based language learning (DGBL) and dynamic assessment (DA) offer language learning opportunities via sociocultural engagement. This quantitative study explored the role of pragmatic learning strategies (PLSs) and gender in game-based group dynamic assessment. Our participants included thirty upper-intermediate EFL learners (15 males and 15 females) from two intact classes taking an English pragmatic course via game-based group dynamic assessment. Following a pre-test, treatment, and post-test design, the participants filled out a PLS inventory to identify the strategies for tackling L2 conversations in different situations. Besides, all learners were required to write reflective journals following each treatment session. Descriptive statistics and correlational analysis were employed to analyze the data. The findings indicated that the participants most widely used memory strategies, i.e., they relied more on memorizing and storing previous pragmatic knowledge. In addition, compensatory strategies were positive but weak predictors of the learners’ L2 pragmatic performance, and gender did not impact the learners’ use of different PLSs. The study’s limitation and its practical and pedagogical implications for educational policymakers, teacher education programs, and L2 instructors will be discussed in light of the posed research questions.
Research Paper
Applied Linguistics
Ehsan Namaziandost; Tahereh Heydarnejad; Afsheen Rezai
Abstract
The importance of studying teachers' professional well-being has increased greatly in recent years. However, researchers have not paid enough attention to how teachers' levels of immunity, buoyancy, and emotion regulation (ER) in the classroom all play a role in shaping teachers’ L2 grit ...
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The importance of studying teachers' professional well-being has increased greatly in recent years. However, researchers have not paid enough attention to how teachers' levels of immunity, buoyancy, and emotion regulation (ER) in the classroom all play a role in shaping teachers’ L2 grit and mindfulness. This research seeks to address this gap in the literature by presenting a model of the dynamic interaction of teacher immunity (TI), teacher buoyancy (TB), teacher emotion regulation (TER), L2 grit, and teacher mindfulness (TM). To gather this information, 519 English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers were given surveys measuring their levels of mindfulness in the classroom using the language teacher immunity instrument (LTII), teacher buoyancy scale (TBS), Teacher Emotion Regulation Inventory (LTERI), the L2-teacher grit scale (L2TGS), and Mindfulness in Teaching Scale (MTS). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) results indicated that EFL instructors who achieved a healthy state of immunity (TI), TER, L2 grit had higher levels of L2 grit, and TM. The research winds down with implications and future directions for relevant stakeholders to improve their understanding of the relationship between TI, TB, TER, L2 grit, and TM interactions and their potential to provide favorable educational results for EFL learners.
Research Paper
Discourse Analysis
Saba Bashiri; Hiwa Weisi
Abstract
Obituaries serve as the most viable means to announce a person's death. Regarding the socio-political changes in Iran due to the Islamic Revolution, this descriptive-analytic study reports on a move-based analysis of obituaries belonging before and after the Islamic Revolution driven by Swales' ...
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Obituaries serve as the most viable means to announce a person's death. Regarding the socio-political changes in Iran due to the Islamic Revolution, this descriptive-analytic study reports on a move-based analysis of obituaries belonging before and after the Islamic Revolution driven by Swales' (1990, 2004) genre move analysis. We employed a move-based analysis of 100 obituaries from two distinct periods collected via a library-documentary method. Our primary aim was to disclose the influence of a socio-political phenomenon on this specific genre, i.e., an obituary. After identifying the major moves of the two obituary sets, their similarities and differences were inspected. The results indicated that after the Islamic Revolution obituaries contained twice as many moves as their counterparts. There were overlaps between the two data sets in four moves, namely (a) identifying the announcer(s), (b) identifying the deceased, (c) identifying family members, and (d) outlining the time and place of the funeral. Four moves were only present in after the Islamic Revolution corpus, which included (a) opening, (b) including the picture of the deceased, (c) showing sorrow for the event, and (d) characterizing the deceased. The moves discussion will be supplemented with explanations instigated from the socio-economic, religious, and political context of both periods.
Research Paper
Education
Seyed Behrouz Behzadi; Nasser Rashidi
Abstract
Teacher cognition, as a chief area within teacher education, is concerned with what teachers think, know, and do (Borg, 2003). One of the knotty strands emerging out of the past 50 or so years of research on teacher cognition is the misalignment between teachers’ cognition and practice. This study ...
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Teacher cognition, as a chief area within teacher education, is concerned with what teachers think, know, and do (Borg, 2003). One of the knotty strands emerging out of the past 50 or so years of research on teacher cognition is the misalignment between teachers’ cognition and practice. This study adopted a critical interpretative synthesis framework to identify factors generating such incongruence by dissecting 12 studies reporting on teachers’ cognition vis-à-vis their practice. The emerging themes were translated into each other and synthesised to form two lines of argument. The first one describes sources of teachers’ cognition and practice as ontological, epistemological, and contextual. Teachers’ apprenticeship of observation was found to exert the highest influence in fashioning their cognition and practice by sifting professional learning experiences and granting admission to only those commensurate with personal learning experiences. The second line of argument propounds that connate, personal, and contextual factors breed (mis)alignment into teachers’ cognition and practice. Furthermore, Cartesian dualism (Descartes, 1596-1650) and Heideggerianhermeneutic phenomenology (Heidegger, 1889-1976) were utilised to critically de- and re-territorialise the developed lines of argument. This interpretive conceptualisation of teacher cognition is rooted in but patently transcends the original studies in that it invites a fresh demarcation of the territory intensely occupied by contextual factors to allow teachers to practice ‘cogito, ergo I teach’. Finally, some suggestions are offered for the relevance of the results to teacher cognition research and teacher education and policy.
Research Paper
Applied Linguistics
Shiva Kaivanpanah; Awat Mohammed
Abstract
Teachers’ beliefs play a determining role in the decisions they make and the strategies they employ to foster learner autonomy. Therefore, their beliefs and the strategies they use to foster autonomy merit additional empirical evidence. This study investigated the beliefs of 85 English as a Foreign ...
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Teachers’ beliefs play a determining role in the decisions they make and the strategies they employ to foster learner autonomy. Therefore, their beliefs and the strategies they use to foster autonomy merit additional empirical evidence. This study investigated the beliefs of 85 English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Kurdish teachers towards learner autonomy and examined the influence of their experience in this regard. The data was collected using a newly developed questionnaire addressing learner autonomy from eight dimensions; the questionnaire encouraged teachers to reflect on their beliefs relating to learner autonomy. The findings indicated that teachers generally possess positive attitudes towards learner autonomy. Experienced teachers placed significantly greater emphasis on the psychological and political factors, the contributions of learner autonomy, and learning materials. The qualitative data indicated that both novice and experienced teachers stressed the importance of promoting autonomy through learner-centered teaching methods and student engagement. Experienced teachers employed more varied teaching methods and assessment techniques. While novice teachers preferred direct observation of their students during tasks and activities, experienced teachers adopted a more hands-off approach. The study underscores teachers' commitment to fostering independent learning across different dimensions of teaching practices. The differences in beliefs and strategies between novice and experienced teachers highlight the transformative impact of teaching experience on the promotion of learner autonomy. The findings implied that professional development programs should focus on shaping teachers’ beliefs towards using teaching strategies that foster autonomy.
Research Paper
Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
Mahsa Seirafi; Masoud Zoghi; Haniyeh Davatgari
Abstract
This study delves into the attitudes of Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners toward the classroom practices of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). It endeavors to present a comprehensive understanding of the current state of CLT in Iran, the associated challenges, and potential avenues ...
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This study delves into the attitudes of Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners toward the classroom practices of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). It endeavors to present a comprehensive understanding of the current state of CLT in Iran, the associated challenges, and potential avenues for enhancing CLT classroom practices. The existing literature review highlights a scarcity of research concerning learners’ perspectives on CLT, with many studies primarily relying on questionnaires or surveys, failing to capture learners’ nuanced attitudes and experiences. In response to this gap, our qualitative research explores the attitudes of 31 Iranian EFL learners using a grounded theory approach. Grounded theory, known for its capacity to unearth insights into social processes and their underlying factors, is particularly suited to this endeavor. The research findings uncover seven key themes that constitute the dimensions of CLT practices in the EFL classroom. These themes include interactive learning, speaking-auditory communication, learners’ participation in class activities, learners’ ability, teacher empowerment, learning needs assessment, and communicative language training. This study offers valuable insights into Iranian EFL learners’ attitudes toward CLT classroom practices. Findings also contribute to the ongoing dialogue on language teaching methodologies, providing educators and policymakers with a deeper understanding of learner perspectives and paving the way for more effective CLT implementation in EFL classrooms in Iran.Keywords: Attitude, communicative language teaching, EFL, exploratory research, grounded theory
Research Paper
Testing
Narjes Khodaparast; Nasim Ghanbari; Abbas Abbasi
Abstract
Among different factors affecting writing assessment, rater and rating scale are two influential variables which determine the outcome of assessment. Taking this into account, this study attempted to identify and classify the raters’ behaviors in the Iranian EFL context when using analytic and ...
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Among different factors affecting writing assessment, rater and rating scale are two influential variables which determine the outcome of assessment. Taking this into account, this study attempted to identify and classify the raters’ behaviors in the Iranian EFL context when using analytic and holistic rating scales. For this aim, a body of nine expert raters were asked to verbalize their thoughts when rating student essays. They were also asked to do their rating using the analytic scale of ESL Composition Profile and IELTS holistic scale. Upon the qualitative analysis of think-aloud protocols (TAPs), two themes emerged which showed the raters’ behaviors when applying the rating scales. The findings further showed that when using the holistic scale, the raters read the text first to get an overall impression. Then they assessed the text based on their own criteria. Next, they referred to the scale for scoring and in the last stage they provided evidence for their scoring. On the other hand, when applying analytic rating scales, the raters first scanned the text for surface features. Then they read the text for their initial impression. Next, they read each scale component and its descriptor for scoring and finally, they attempted to provide evidence for their scoring. In addition to identifying the raters’ behaviors, the raters’ behaviors were classified. The findings imply that the diagnosis of the rater-rating scale interactions can unveil the strengths and weaknesses of the EFL rating process. This, in turn, can provide more quality training for the raters.
Research Paper
Testing
Elham Banisaeed; Mohammad Hashamdar; Kobra Tavassoli
Abstract
Classroom-based assessment (CBA) as one of the constructs of formative assessment has been considered highly significant in recent years. Consequently, various tools have been designed to investigate teachers` CBA needs and deficiencies ignoring different levels of teachers` CBA literacy. Thus, the present ...
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Classroom-based assessment (CBA) as one of the constructs of formative assessment has been considered highly significant in recent years. Consequently, various tools have been designed to investigate teachers` CBA needs and deficiencies ignoring different levels of teachers` CBA literacy. Thus, the present study researchers developed and validated a classroom-based assessment literacy questionnaire (CALQ) to determine teachers` levels of CBAL. To do so, an inclusive review of the literature was accomplished to retrieve major themes and components of CBAL, and then a series of interviews were conducted with five assessment experts and 13 experienced EFL teachers in accordance with Pill and Harding’s (2013) Model of LAL, Hill and McNamara’s (2012) scope and dimensions of CBA in addition to teachers’ assessment literacy beliefs. Accordingly, a questionnaire (CALQ) including 41 items was developed. To inquire the reliability and validity of the CALQ, 318 EFL teachers were selected through non-probability convenience sampling and asked to answer the questionnaire. The outcomes of the Cronbach’s alpha demonstrated a proper reliability index, and factor analysis products clarified that items loaded on six factors named as illiteracy (6 items); nominal literacy (11 items); functional literacy (6 items); procedural and conceptual literacy (6 items); multidimensional literacy (6 items); and assessment literacy beliefs (6 items). Besides, CALQ is considered advantageous in assessing teachers’ CBAL and facilitating materials preparation to design instructional courses and develop EFL teachers’ CBAL, based on the conclusions of structural equation modeling (SEM), which proved that the Model enjoyed good psychometric features.
Research Paper
CALL & MALL
Milad Naderi; Jalil Fathi; Habib Soleimani
Abstract
With the widespread use of technology in today's society, the effective integration of technology in education has become a vital area of research, particularly in teacher education. Teacher variables play a crucial role in the successful incorporation of technology in the classroom. Consequently, ...
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With the widespread use of technology in today's society, the effective integration of technology in education has become a vital area of research, particularly in teacher education. Teacher variables play a crucial role in the successful incorporation of technology in the classroom. Consequently, several empirical studies have explored the factors influencing teachers' intentions to use technology. This study aims to contribute to this research by examining the roles of teacher self-efficacy and technology self-efficacy in predicting technology use among Iranian EFL instructors. A sample of 353 Iranian EFL instructors participated in an online survey, completing three self-report scales measuring the mentioned constructs. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to analyze the collected data and test the relationships between the variables. The findings indicated that teacher technology self-efficacy had a more significant impact on intentions to use technology compared to teacher self-efficacy. Both predictor variables, however, showed unique effects on intentions to use technology. The paper concludes with practical implications and recommendations for further research.
Research Paper
Applied Linguistics
Farhang Daneshfard; Mahboobeh Saadat
Abstract
Investigation of cross-linguistic influence (CLI) using stimulated recall can be revealing at the level of cognition. Cross-linguistic and intra-linguistic influence in the use of French prepositions for Iranian L1 Persian/L2 English/L3 French learners was thus explored in this study. Data were gathered ...
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Investigation of cross-linguistic influence (CLI) using stimulated recall can be revealing at the level of cognition. Cross-linguistic and intra-linguistic influence in the use of French prepositions for Iranian L1 Persian/L2 English/L3 French learners was thus explored in this study. Data were gathered from 12 students of English (Group E) and 12 students of French (Group F). A fill-in-the-blank test of French prepositions was administered; then, the participants were asked to recall how they answered the items. The results of analysis of the data gathered revealed traces of CLI and intra-linguistic influence. It turned out that the participants not only used their L3 knowledge but also thought of the sentence, part of the sentence, or the preposition in Persian or English or considered a similar sentence or phrase in one of the three languages. However, Persian influence manifested more deeply in the form of thinking of sentences whereas that of English was more in the form of thinking of prepositions. Furthermore, in both groups, after the CLI of Persian, French intra-linguistic influence was more frequent followed by CLI of English; therefore, linguistic proximity between French and English was not found crucial. Finally, Group F, with more L3 exposure, experienced less CLI with a higher percentage of facilitative influence.
Research Paper
Education
Mahnaz Mostafaei Alaei; Mahya Alaei
Abstract
Although the concept of favoritism has received attention in various areas of study such as management, business, and medical settings, this line of research has scarcely been explored in teacher education and especially in L2 acquisition context. The current study aimed to design and validate a scale ...
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Although the concept of favoritism has received attention in various areas of study such as management, business, and medical settings, this line of research has scarcely been explored in teacher education and especially in L2 acquisition context. The current study aimed to design and validate a scale that could explore English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers’ perceptions of academic favoritism. After developing the 40-item Academic Favoritism Questionnaire (AFQ), it was administered to the target participants of the study, and the required data were collected from 154 Iranian EFL teachers selected through non-random convenience sampling. The results of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed eight underlying components of the model: damaging collaborative learning, educational inequality, teachers’ biased attitudes, teacher-student conflicts, learning barriers, unfair students’ treatments, negative learners’ experience, and unhealthy academic atmosphere. The study findings may shed light on this obscure topic in the field of education. The study provides important implications for different education stakeholders including researchers, teacher educators, supervisors, EFL teachers, and L2 learners as the findings could increase their awareness of favoritism and its likely influence on their professional practices and environment.
Research Paper
Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
Sepideh Mehraein; Hamideh Marefat
Abstract
Extensive research exists on the effects of task design features on measuring L2 learners’ implicit and explicit knowledge. However, the role of structure difficulty has received limited attention. Additionally, the use of fine-grained measures of implicit knowledge has remained underexplored. ...
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Extensive research exists on the effects of task design features on measuring L2 learners’ implicit and explicit knowledge. However, the role of structure difficulty has received limited attention. Additionally, the use of fine-grained measures of implicit knowledge has remained underexplored. To address these gaps, utilizing objective criteria to select easy (plural -s) and difficult (third-person -s) structures, a total of 256 experimental items, equally divided into grammatical and ungrammatical, as well as easy and difficult structures, were developed and administered to 32 advanced L2 learners. A word monitoring task (WMT) assessed their implicit knowledge through reaction time (RT) and grammaticality sensitivity index (GSI), while a timed grammaticality judgment test (TGJT) measured their automatized explicit knowledge through accuracy scores. The WMT results showed longer RTs for ungrammatical items and larger GSI for the plural -s items, revealing participants’ more implicit knowledge of the easy structure. The results of the TGJT revealed that L2 learners judged grammatical items more accurately than ungrammatical ones and the plural -s items more accurately than third-person -s ones, showing participants’ more automatized explicit knowledge of the easy and grammatical structures. The findings highlight the influence of grammaticality and structure difficulty on knowledge retrieval and suggest that advanced L2 learners exhibit stronger implicit and automatized explicit knowledge of the easy structure. These findings underscore the need for tailored instructional approaches to address difficult structures and emphasize the importance of using real-time psycholinguistic measures to examine L2 learners’ implicit knowledge.
Research Paper
Applied Linguistics
Goodarz Shakibaei; Seyyed Mohammad Ali Soozandehfar; Fatemeh Owliaei; Arash Hashemifardnia
Abstract
The goal of this inquiry was to scrutinize how Iranian university students' motivation, creativity, emotional intelligence (EI), and intellectual awareness (IA) were affected by artificial intelligence (AI). Sixty Iranian university students in Ahvaz, Iran, were chosen based on a convenience sampling ...
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The goal of this inquiry was to scrutinize how Iranian university students' motivation, creativity, emotional intelligence (EI), and intellectual awareness (IA) were affected by artificial intelligence (AI). Sixty Iranian university students in Ahvaz, Iran, were chosen based on a convenience sampling method to reach this objective, and they were separated into two groups: the experimental group (EG) and the control group (CG). Both groups were administered four relevant questionnaires to gauge their proficiency in each dependent variable. Next, utilizing AI-ChatGPT, some modified materials (ten reading texts) were trained to the EG. The CG received traditional instruction using the same materials. Four questionnaires were given to each group as research posttests following the ten-week course of treatment. The results of ANCOVA and independent samples t-tests revealed meaningful differences; the EG did better than the CG on all dependent variables. Based on the gained results, the EG outperformed the CG on the posttests of motivation, creativity, EI, and IA. The research's implications can encourage EFL teachers and learners to acquaint themselves with different AI applications and apply them in their teaching and learning.
Research Paper
Discourse Analysis
Parviz Ajideh; Mohammad Zohrabi; Rougia Oghbatalab
Abstract
In academic discourse across diverse fields, the cultivation of authorial competence in crafting compelling and persuasive texts is of paramount importance. Scholars in the field of linguistics, particularly those involved in discourse analysis, have been attentive to this necessity. Within the realm ...
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In academic discourse across diverse fields, the cultivation of authorial competence in crafting compelling and persuasive texts is of paramount importance. Scholars in the field of linguistics, particularly those involved in discourse analysis, have been attentive to this necessity. Within the realm of academic writing, the strategic utilization of engagement markers plays a pivotal role in achieving persuasive communication and fostering reader engagement. The cultural positioning of academic writers is often reflected in the incorporation of these linguistic elements within written discourse. This study undertook an examination of 60 research articles spanning the domains of hard and soft sciences, with a focus on discerning potential disparities in the employment of engagement markers between two distinct cohorts of authors: native English speakers and non-native Iranian writers. Employing Hyland's (2005b) model of engagement markers as an analytical framework, the study sought to ascertain the frequency of these linguistic devices within academic research articles produced by the aforementioned groups. The findings of the analysis revealed significant differences in the overall and categorical distribution of engagement markers in the scholarly works of native English and non-native Iranian authors across hard and soft science disciplines. These differences may be ascribed to the cultural positioning of academic writers or the potential lack of familiarity with the established conventions of English rhetoric, pragmatics, and sociolinguistics among non-native Iranian authors. The implications of these findings are significant, as they can inform the development of pedagogical materials aimed at enhancing the academic writing proficiency of authors.
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